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	01.12.2009, 21:47
Lecture 3 Special stylistic categories. Every linguistic unit has reference to surrounding reality. This obligatory function of linguistic units is called "denotative”. Stylistic meaning also materializes a concept in the word, but unlike denotative meaning, stylistic meaning has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings of the speaker towards these things, or reflects the norms of linguistic behavior in some sphere of communication. This type of meaning is said to convey secondary information and is more difficult to trace and define than denotative meaning. Stylistics has a special term to characterize this elusive concept: connotation. Thus, connotation is an idea suggested or implied by a word in addition to its main meaning. e.g. the word "hack” means "journalist”, but has derogatory connotations. The most general approach yields four classes of connotation (I.V.Arnold): 1)emotive (subjective vs. objective) 2)expressive (strong vs. weak) 3)evaluative (negative vs. positive) 4)functional stylistic (formal vs. informal) However, in communication the borderline among these subclasses often disappears, and linguistic units charged with connotations can be described only as marked members of the opposition vs. unmarked. Words with connotations are marked in dictionary by labels: obs – obsolete lit – used in literature  poet – used in poetry law – used in a term of law fml – used in formal speech joc – used in a jocular way etc. Connotations can be generated by all the units of the language. For the description of the mechanism of connotations all categories of linguistics can be resorted to. e.g. My daddy is always grumbling. Connotations are generated here by the substitution of the Present Indefinite Tense for the Present Continuous Tense the implication being that "daddy” performs the action of grumbling too often to the speaker’s mind. Stylistics has developed a system of its own categories to typify those linguistic patterns which produce connotations. These categories are usually classified in accordance with the principle of the levels of the language. Thus, stylistic categories fall into four major groups: 1)phonetic 2)morphological 3)lexical 4)syntactical Phonetic stylistic devices include: onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhyme and rhythm. Morphological stylistic devices include: morphemic repetition and extension of morphemic valency. Lexical stylistic devices include: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, irony, hyperbole, periphrases, euphemism. Syntactical stylistic devices include: inversion, detached construction, parallel construction, chiasmus, repetition (anaphora, epiphora, framing, anadiplosis), enumeration, suspence, climax, anticlimax, asyndeton, polysyndeton, the "gap-sentence” link, ellipses, represented speech, rhetorical questions, litotes.
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